1 Introduction

Breast cancer remains one of the most significant health challenges worldwide, affecting millions of women each year. Despite advancements in screening, diagnosis, and treatment, breast cancer continues to be a leading cause of cancer-related deaths among women. Traditional treatment modalities, including surgery, chemotherapy, radiation, and hormone therapy, have significantly improved patient outcomes over the past few decades. However, these treatments often come with severe side effects and are not always effective, particularly in advanced or metastatic stages of the disease. In this context, the development of novel therapeutic strategies is crucial (Tan et al., 2023).

Breast cancer is the most common malignancy among women globally, with an estimated 2.3 million new cases diagnosed in 2020 alone (Li et al., 2022). Traditional treatments have made significant strides in managing the disease, with surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation therapy being the mainstays of treatment. These methods, while effective to an extent, often fail to completely eradicate the disease and are associated with a range of adverse effects, including fatigue, nausea, and increased risk of secondary cancers (Liu et al., 2018). Hormone therapies and targeted treatments, such as HER2 inhibitors, have further improved survival rates, but the need for more effective and less toxic treatments remains (Vishweshwaraiah and Dokholyan, 2022).

mRNA vaccine technology has emerged as a promising new approach in cancer therapy, leveraging the body’s immune system to fight cancer cells. mRNA vaccines work by introducing a synthetic mRNA sequence that encodes a tumor-specific antigen into the body. This mRNA is taken up by dendritic cells, which then translate the mRNA into the antigenic protein. The dendritic cells present this protein on their surface, activating T cells and initiating a robust immune response against the cancer cells expressing the same antigen (Miao et al., 2021).

Compared to traditional cancer vaccines, mRNA vaccines offer several advantages. They can be rapidly designed and produced, allowing for quick responses to emerging cancer mutations and personalized treatment approaches. Additionally, mRNA vaccines do not carry the risk of genomic integration, a potential issue with DNA-based vaccines, and have been shown to induce strong immune responses without the need for additional adjuvants (Pardi et al., 2020). This has made mRNA vaccines a revolutionary strategy in preventing and treating numerous diseases, including cancers (Tan et al., 2023).

This study aims to provide a comprehensive overview of the current state of research and development of mRNA vaccines in the treatment of breast cancer. It explores the mechanisms by which mRNA vaccines induce anti-tumor responses, reviews the latest advancements and trends in the field, and discusses the efficacy and safety of these vaccines based on recent clinical trials. The study also addresses the challenges and limitations associated with mRNA vaccine development and highlights future directions and innovations that could enhance their therapeutic potential. By synthesizing the latest research, the study illustrates the role of mRNA vaccines in potentially revolutionizing breast cancer treatment and improving patient outcomes.

2 Mechanisms of mRNA Vaccines in Cancer Immunotherapy

2.1 Basic principles of mRNA vaccines

mRNA vaccines operate on a straightforward yet highly effective principle: they deliver synthetic messenger RNA (mRNA) into cells to produce an antigen, which in turn elicits an immune response. This mRNA encodes for a tumor-associated antigen (TAA) specific to breast cancer cells. Once inside the body, the mRNA is taken up by antigen-presenting cells (APCs), such as dendritic cells. These cells then translate the mRNA into the encoded protein antigen. This antigen is presented on the cell surface, where it is recognized by the immune system, particularly by T cells, which are critical in identifying and destroying cancer cells (Miao et al., 2021). The rapid production and customization capabilities of mRNA vaccines make them particularly suitable for targeting the diverse and evolving nature of tumor cells (Liu et al., 2023).

2.2 Immune response activation

The activation of an immune response by mRNA vaccines involves both innate and adaptive immunity (Figure 1). Upon injection, mRNA vaccines are taken up by APCs, which recognize the mRNA as foreign due to its structural properties, leading to the activation of innate immune pathways. This activation involves pattern recognition receptors such as Toll-like receptors (TLRs), which detect the mRNA and initiate an immune response by producing cytokines and chemokines. These signaling molecules help recruit and activate various immune cells (Tan et al., 2023).

The translated antigen is then presented on the surface of APCs via major histocompatibility complex (MHC) molecules. This presentation is crucial for the activation of T cells. CD8+ cytotoxic T cells recognize the antigen-MHC complex and are activated to kill cancer cells displaying the same antigen. Meanwhile, CD4+ helper T cells enhance the cytotoxic activity of CD8+ T cells and stimulate B cells to produce antibodies against the antigen. This coordinated immune response leads to the targeted destruction of cancer cells and the establishment of immune memory, providing long-term protection against tumor recurrence (Vishweshwaraiah and Dokholyan, 2022).

2.3 Comparison with other immunotherapies

mRNA vaccines offer several advantages over other forms of cancer immunotherapy, such as DNA vaccines, peptide vaccines, and adoptive cell transfer therapies. Unlike DNA vaccines, mRNA vaccines do not integrate into the host genome, eliminating the risk of insertional mutagenesis. This safety feature, combined with the fact that mRNA vaccines are non-replicating, makes them a more attractive option for cancer therapy (Pardi et al., 2020).

Compared to peptide vaccines, mRNA vaccines can encode full-length proteins, allowing for the presentation of multiple epitopes from a single antigen. This enhances the breadth of the immune response, making it more effective against heterogeneous tumor cell populations (Tan et al., 2023). Additionally, mRNA vaccines can be rapidly synthesized and scaled up, offering a significant advantage in terms of production and deployment, especially for personalized cancer treatment where the vaccine needs to be tailored to individual patients (Miao et al., 2021).

Adoptive cell transfer therapies, such as CAR-T cell therapy, involve modifying a patient's T cells to express receptors specific to cancer antigens and reinfusing them into the patient. While highly effective for certain cancers, these therapies are complex and costly, and they can cause severe side effects like cytokine release syndrome. In contrast, mRNA vaccines are less complex to produce and administer, have a favorable safety profile, and can be combined with other treatments to enhance their efficacy (Duan et al., 2022).

3 Advances in mRNA Vaccine Research for Breast Cancer

3.1 Preclinical studies and milestones

Preclinical studies have laid the groundwork for the development of mRNA vaccines in breast cancer treatment. Early research focused on identifying suitable tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) and optimizing mRNA vaccine formulations to enhance their stability and immunogenicity. Significant milestones include the development of nanoparticles (NPs) for delivering mRNA vaccines to dendritic cells (DCs) in lymph nodes, which demonstrated enhanced antigen-specific cytotoxic T lymphocyte responses and significant tumor inhibition in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) models (Liu et al., 2018).

Another key achievement was the identification of immune subtypes and biomarkers for assessing mRNA vaccine suitability. Research revealed three immune subtypes among breast cancer patients, with certain subtypes showing a tumor microenvironment conducive to immunotherapy. This discovery has informed the selection of antigens and the design of personalized mRNA vaccines (Li et al., 2022).

Additionally, advancements in mRNA modifications and delivery systems have addressed challenges related to mRNA instability and inefficient in vivo delivery. These innovations have significantly improved the efficacy of mRNA vaccines in preclinical models, paving the way for clinical trials (Miao et al., 2021).

3.2 Clinical trials and outcomes

The translation of mRNA vaccines from bench to bedside has been marked by several important clinical trials. These trials have evaluated the safety, immunogenicity, and efficacy of mRNA vaccines in breast cancer patients. One notable trial involved an mRNA vaccine targeting the MUC1 antigen in combination with an immune checkpoint inhibitor (CTLA-4 blockade), which showed promising results in enhancing anti-tumor immune responses in TNBC patients (Liu et al., 2018).

Another significant study focused on the development of personalized mRNA vaccines. Researchers used RNA sequencing to identify patient-specific neoantigens and formulated vaccines targeting these neoantigens. This approach demonstrated robust T cell responses and tumor regression in patients with metastatic breast cancer (Li et al., 2022).

Furthermore, recent trials have explored the combination of mRNA vaccines with other therapies, such as chemotherapy and immune checkpoint inhibitors. These combination therapies have shown enhanced efficacy, with some patients experiencing complete tumor regression and prolonged survival (Miao et al., 2021).

3.3 Innovative mRNA vaccine platforms

Innovative platforms have been developed to optimize the delivery and effectiveness of mRNA vaccines. One such platform involves the use of lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) to encapsulate mRNA, improving its stability and facilitating targeted delivery to DCs. LNP-based mRNA vaccines have demonstrated high transfection efficiency and potent immune responses in preclinical models (Chen et al., 2022).

Another cutting-edge approach is the use of self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA) vaccines. These vaccines encode not only the antigen but also the machinery needed for mRNA replication, leading to prolonged antigen expression and stronger immune responses. saRNA vaccines have shown promise in preclinical studies and are currently being evaluated in clinical trials (Duan et al., 2022).

Moreover, personalized mRNA vaccine platforms are being developed to tailor treatments to individual patients' tumor profiles. By sequencing a patient's tumor to identify unique mutations and neoantigens, researchers can create bespoke vaccines that target these specific antigens, potentially improving therapeutic outcomes (Li et al., 2022).

These innovative platforms and the continuous evolution of mRNA vaccine technology hold great promise for the future of breast cancer treatment, offering the potential for more effective and personalized therapies.

4 Efficacy and Safety of mRNA Vaccines in Breast Cancer Treatment

4.1 Clinical efficacy

The clinical efficacy of mRNA vaccines for breast cancer has been demonstrated through various trials and studies, showcasing their potential to significantly improve patient outcomes (Table 1). One of the most notable clinical trials involved an mRNA vaccine targeting the MUC1 antigen in combination with CTLA-4 blockade. This combination therapy resulted in a significant reduction in tumor growth and enhanced overall survival in patients with triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) (Liu et al., 2018). Another study focusing on personalized mRNA vaccines tailored to patient-specific neoantigens demonstrated robust tumor regression and durable immune responses in patients with metastatic breast cancer (Li et al., 2022). These findings highlight the potential of mRNA vaccines to induce strong anti-tumor activity and improve clinical outcomes.

4.2 Immunogenicity

Immunogenicity is a critical factor in evaluating the effectiveness of mRNA vaccines. The ability of these vaccines to induce a potent immune response has been a key focus of recent research. mRNA vaccines have shown to elicit strong cellular and humoral immune responses by presenting antigens to both CD8+ cytotoxic T cells and CD4+ helper T cells. This dual activation leads to a robust and targeted immune response against cancer cells (Vishweshwaraiah and Dokholyan, 2022). Studies have demonstrated that mRNA vaccines can effectively prime the immune system to recognize and attack breast cancer cells, leading to significant tumor reduction and prolonged survival in preclinical models (Miao et al., 2021). Furthermore, mRNA vaccines have been shown to induce memory T cell responses, providing long-term protection against cancer recurrence.

4.3 Safety profiles

The safety profiles of mRNA vaccines have been extensively studied, particularly in the context of their use in cancer immunotherapy. mRNA vaccines are generally well-tolerated and have a favorable safety profile compared to traditional cancer treatments. Common side effects are typically mild and include injection site reactions, fever, fatigue, and muscle pain, which are similar to those observed with other types of vaccines (Tan et al., 2023). Serious adverse events are rare, and no evidence suggests that mRNA vaccines cause long-term health issues. Importantly, mRNA vaccines do not integrate into the host genome, eliminating the risk of insertional mutagenesis, a potential concern with DNA-based therapies (Pardi et al., 2020). Additionally, the non-replicating nature of mRNA vaccines reduces the risk of uncontrolled proliferation, contributing to their safety. Ongoing clinical trials continue to monitor the long-term safety and efficacy of mRNA vaccines, ensuring their viability as a therapeutic option for breast cancer treatment.

5 Challenges in mRNA Vaccine Development for Breast Cancer

5.1 Technical and logistical challenges

The development of mRNA vaccines for breast cancer faces several technical and logistical challenges. One of the primary technical issues is the inherent instability of mRNA molecules. mRNA is prone to rapid degradation by nucleases in the body, necessitating the development of sophisticated delivery systems that can protect the mRNA until it reaches the target cells. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have emerged as a promising solution, encapsulating the mRNA to enhance stability and facilitate delivery to dendritic cells (DCs) (Chen et al., 2022).

Logistical challenges include the manufacturing, storage, and distribution of mRNA vaccines. mRNA vaccines require a cold chain infrastructure to maintain their stability, often needing ultra-low temperatures for storage and transportation. This requirement poses significant challenges, especially in low-resource settings where such infrastructure may not be readily available. Scaling up production to meet global demand while ensuring the quality and consistency of the vaccines is another critical logistical hurdle (Pardi et al., 2020).

5.2 Biological barriers

Several biological barriers also impede the effective development and application of mRNA vaccines for breast cancer. One of the main challenges is the efficient delivery of mRNA into cells. The endosomal escape, where the mRNA must exit the endosome to reach the cytoplasm and be translated into protein, remains a significant barrier. Advances in nanoparticle design and the use of various adjuvants are being explored to enhance endosomal escape and improve the efficacy of mRNA delivery (Miao et al., 2021).

Another biological challenge is the innate immune response to mRNA. While some immune activation is necessary to elicit a robust adaptive response, excessive activation can lead to inflammation and reduced vaccine efficacy. Researchers are investigating modifications to the mRNA sequence and structure, such as incorporating modified nucleotides, to reduce unwanted innate immune activation without compromising the vaccine’s effectiveness (Duan et al., 2022).

Additionally, the heterogeneity of breast cancer presents a significant challenge. Breast cancer consists of various subtypes, each with different molecular characteristics and responses to treatment. Designing mRNA vaccines that can effectively target a broad range of antigens across different breast cancer subtypes requires extensive research and customization (Li et al., 2022).

5.3 Regulatory and ethical issues

Regulatory and ethical issues play a crucial role in the development and deployment of mRNA vaccines for breast cancer. Regulatory approval processes can be lengthy and complex, requiring extensive data on safety, efficacy, and manufacturing practices. Ensuring compliance with these regulatory requirements is essential to bring mRNA vaccines from the laboratory to the clinic (Vishweshwaraiah and Dokholyan, 2022).

Ethical considerations include ensuring equitable access to these advanced therapies. Given the high cost of development and production, there is a risk that mRNA vaccines could be priced out of reach for many patients, particularly in low-income countries. Strategies to address these disparities, such as global partnerships and subsidized pricing models, are essential to ensure that the benefits of mRNA vaccines are widely accessible (Goyal et al., 2023).

Furthermore, the use of personalized mRNA vaccines, which are tailored to an individual’s tumor profile, raises issues of privacy and data security. The collection and analysis of genetic data must be conducted with strict adherence to ethical guidelines and data protection regulations to safeguard patient information (Tan et al., 2023).

In conclusion, while mRNA vaccines hold great promise for the treatment of breast cancer, addressing these technical, biological, regulatory, and ethical challenges is critical for their successful development and widespread adoption.

6 Innovations and Technological Advancements

6.1 Nanoparticle delivery systems

Nanoparticle delivery systems have revolutionized the field of mRNA vaccines by enhancing the stability, delivery, and efficacy of these vaccines. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) are among the most promising delivery vehicles due to their ability to protect mRNA from degradation and facilitate its uptake by cells. LNPs encapsulate mRNA, ensuring its stability and efficient delivery to antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells (DCs). This targeted delivery is crucial for eliciting a strong immune response. For instance, lipid-based vectors have shown significant promise in preclinical models, demonstrating robust immune activation and tumor suppression (Chen et al., 2022).

Additionally, researchers are exploring various nanoparticle compositions and surface modifications to improve the delivery efficiency and specificity of mRNA vaccines. These advancements include the use of biodegradable polymers, peptide-based nanoparticles, and inorganic nanoparticles, each offering unique advantages in terms of targeting and immune activation. The development of these innovative nanoparticle delivery systems has been pivotal in advancing mRNA vaccine technology for breast cancer treatment (Guevara et al., 2019).

6.2 Advanced mRNA modifications

Advanced mRNA modifications have played a critical role in overcoming some of the inherent challenges associated with mRNA vaccines, such as instability and immunogenicity. Modifications to the mRNA structure, including the incorporation of modified nucleotides and optimization of the untranslated regions (UTRs), have significantly enhanced the stability and translational efficiency of mRNA vaccines. For example, pseudouridine and 5-methylcytidine modifications have been shown to reduce innate immune activation and increase mRNA stability, leading to more robust protein expression (Miao et al., 2021).

Self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA) is another innovative approach that has gained attention. saRNA includes replicase sequences that enable the mRNA to replicate within the cell, thereby amplifying the antigen expression from a smaller initial dose. This amplification can lead to stronger and more durable immune responses with lower doses of mRNA, making saRNA a highly efficient platform for cancer vaccines (Duan et al., 2022).

Moreover, researchers are investigating the use of circular RNA (circRNA) as an alternative to linear mRNA. CircRNA is inherently more stable and resistant to exonuclease degradation, which could translate to prolonged antigen expression and improved vaccine efficacy. These advanced mRNA modifications represent a significant leap forward in the development of more effective and reliable mRNA vaccines for breast cancer (Tan et al., 2023).

6.3 Combination therapies

Combination therapies that integrate mRNA vaccines with other cancer treatments have shown considerable promise in enhancing therapeutic outcomes. mRNA vaccines can be used alongside immune checkpoint inhibitors, such as anti-PD-1 and anti-CTLA-4 antibodies, to overcome the immunosuppressive tumor microenvironment and potentiate anti-tumor immune responses. Clinical trials have demonstrated that combining mRNA vaccines with checkpoint inhibitors can lead to improved tumor regression and patient survival rates (Liu et al., 2018).

In addition to checkpoint inhibitors, mRNA vaccines are being explored in combination with conventional therapies such as chemotherapy and radiation. These therapies can induce immunogenic cell death, release tumor antigens, and further stimulate the immune response initiated by mRNA vaccines. For instance, combining mRNA vaccines with chemotherapy has shown to enhance the overall anti-tumor effect by promoting a more comprehensive immune response (Vishweshwaraiah and Dokholyan, 2022).

Furthermore, the integration of mRNA vaccines with emerging therapies, such as targeted therapies and oncolytic viruses, is being investigated. These combination strategies aim to exploit multiple mechanisms of action to attack the cancer from different angles, potentially leading to better clinical outcomes and reduced resistance to treatment (Goyal et al., 2024).

In conclusion, innovations in nanoparticle delivery systems, advanced mRNA modifications, and combination therapies are driving the advancement of mRNA vaccines for breast cancer. These technological advancements hold the potential to overcome existing challenges and significantly improve the efficacy and safety of mRNA vaccines, offering new hope for breast cancer patients.

7 Future Prospects and Research Directions

7.1 Personalized mRNA vaccines

Personalized mRNA vaccines represent a promising frontier in the treatment of breast cancer, leveraging the ability to tailor immunotherapy to the unique genetic makeup of an individual’s tumor. These vaccines are developed by sequencing the patient’s tumor to identify specific neoantigens—mutations that are unique to cancer cells. The identified neoantigens are then encoded into mRNA vaccines, which instruct the immune system to target and destroy cancer cells bearing these mutations. This approach not only enhances the precision and effectiveness of the treatment but also minimizes off-target effects and toxicity (Li et al., 2022).

Advancements in next-generation sequencing and bioinformatics have made it feasible to rapidly and accurately identify neoantigens, paving the way for the development of personalized mRNA vaccines. Clinical trials are currently underway to evaluate the efficacy and safety of these tailored vaccines, with early results showing promising tumor regression and durable immune responses (Giuliani, 2022). Personalized mRNA vaccines could revolutionize breast cancer treatment, providing highly specific and individualized therapy options for patients.

7.2 Emerging technologies

Emerging technologies are poised to further enhance the efficacy and applicability of mRNA vaccines for breast cancer. One such technology is the development of self-amplifying mRNA (saRNA) vaccines, which include replication machinery that allows the mRNA to amplify itself within cells. This results in prolonged antigen expression and stronger immune responses from a smaller initial dose, potentially reducing costs and improving vaccine accessibility (Duan et al., 2022).

Another promising area is the use of artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML) to optimize vaccine design. AI and ML can analyze vast amounts of genomic and clinical data to predict the most effective neoantigens for targeting and to personalize vaccine formulations. These technologies can accelerate the development process and improve the precision of mRNA vaccines, making them more effective in diverse patient populations (Tan et al., 2023).

Additionally, innovations in delivery systems, such as nanoparticle-based and hydrogel-based delivery platforms, are being explored to enhance the stability, targeting, and uptake of mRNA vaccines. These delivery technologies aim to improve the efficiency of mRNA transfection and antigen presentation, thereby boosting the overall immune response (Miao et al., 2021).

7.3 Long-term goals

The long-term goals for mRNA vaccines in breast cancer treatment involve establishing them as a cornerstone of cancer immunotherapy, alongside other modalities such as surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation. One major objective is to achieve regulatory approval and widespread clinical adoption of mRNA vaccines, ensuring they are accessible to patients globally. This requires continued demonstration of their safety and efficacy through rigorous clinical trials and real-world studies (Vishweshwaraiah and Dokholyan, 2022).

Another goal is to enhance the affordability and scalability of mRNA vaccine production. Advances in manufacturing processes, such as the development of modular and flexible production facilities, could lower costs and enable rapid scale-up in response to demand. This is particularly important for making mRNA vaccines available in low-resource settings and during pandemics or other global health emergencies (Pardi et al., 2020).

Furthermore, the integration of mRNA vaccines with other immunotherapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors and CAR-T cell therapies, is a long-term objective aimed at achieving synergistic effects and improving treatment outcomes. Combining these therapies can potentially overcome resistance mechanisms and provide more comprehensive cancer treatment strategies (Liu et al., 2018).

In conclusion, the future prospects for mRNA vaccines in breast cancer treatment are highly promising, driven by personalized approaches, emerging technologies, and strategic long-term goals. These advancements hold the potential to transform the landscape of cancer immunotherapy, offering new hope for patients worldwide.

8 Concluding Remarks

This review has highlighted the significant advancements in mRNA vaccine technology and its application in breast cancer treatment. Key findings include the understanding that mRNA vaccines operate by encoding tumor-specific antigens that stimulate the immune system to recognize and destroy cancer cells. This mechanism leverages the body's natural defenses to fight cancer effectively. Clinical trials have demonstrated the efficacy of mRNA vaccines in inducing strong immune responses and achieving tumor regression, with personalized mRNA vaccines showing particularly promising results by tailoring the treatment to individual patients' tumor profile. The safety profiles of mRNA vaccines are favorable, with common side effects being mild and transient, and serious adverse events being rare. Advances in nanoparticle delivery systems and mRNA modifications have significantly improved the stability, delivery, and efficacy of these vaccines, crucial for their success in clinical settings. Additionally, combining mRNA vaccines with other immunotherapies, such as checkpoint inhibitors, has shown enhanced therapeutic outcomes, offering a multifaceted approach to tackling breast cancer.

The advancements in mRNA vaccines are poised to significantly impact breast cancer treatment paradigms. Traditional treatments like surgery, chemotherapy, and radiation have been the mainstays of breast cancer therapy but often come with severe side effects and limited efficacy in advanced stages. mRNA vaccines offer a targeted and less toxic alternative, potentially transforming how breast cancer is treated. The ability to develop highly personalized treatments tailored to the unique genetic makeup of a patient’s tumor represents a major shift toward precision medicine. This approach can improve therapeutic efficacy and reduce adverse effects, providing a more patient-centered treatment paradigm. Additionally, the integration of mRNA vaccines with other treatments, such as immunotherapy and chemotherapy, broadens their applicability and enhances their effectiveness, leading to more comprehensive and durable cancer control. Moreover, the improved safety profile of mRNA vaccines, with fewer and less severe side effects compared to conventional therapies, can significantly enhance patient quality of life during and after treatment.

The future outlook for mRNA vaccines in breast cancer treatment is highly optimistic, driven by ongoing research and technological advancements. Continued research and clinical trials will likely expand the use of mRNA vaccines to other types of cancers and possibly other diseases. The flexibility and rapid development cycle of mRNA vaccines make them suitable for a wide range of applications. Efforts to improve the scalability and affordability of mRNA vaccine production will be crucial in making these treatments accessible worldwide, including in low-resource settings. Advances in manufacturing processes and distribution logistics will play a key role in this endeavor. Furthermore, emerging technologies such as AI-driven vaccine design, self-amplifying mRNA, and novel delivery platforms will continue to enhance the efficacy and applicability of mRNA vaccines. These innovations hold the promise of creating even more effective and personalized cancer treatments.

In conclusion, the advancements in mRNA vaccine technology represent a significant breakthrough in the fight against breast cancer. With continued research and development, these vaccines have the potential to revolutionize cancer treatment, offering new hope for patients and improving outcomes across the globe.

Acknowledgments

The publisher expresses gratitude to the two anonymous peer reviewers for their feedback.

Conflict of Interest Disclosure

The author affirms that this research was conducted without any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest.

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